Colgate Emery Process

Colgate Emery Process Colgate-Emery process, or modifications of it, is the most efficient and inexpensive method for large scale production of saturated fatty acids from fats and oils, and for the production of unsaturated fatty acids generally below IV levels of 120 (fish-derived) or 140 (soya, etc). The high temperature and pressure used permit short reaction time. In continuous, counter-current splitting the fatty oil is deaerated under a vacuum to prevent darkening by oxidation during processing. It is charged at a controlled rate to the bottom of the splitting tower through a sparge ring, which breaks the fat into droplets. The oil in the bottom contacting section rises because of its lower density and extracts the small amount of fatty material dissolved in the aqueous glycerine phase. At the same time deaerated, demineralized water is fed to the top contacting section, where it extracts the glycerine dissolved in the fatty phase. After leaving the contacting sections, the two streams enter the reaction zone. Here they are brought to reaction temperature by the direct injection of high pressure steam, and then the final phase of splitting occurs. The fatty acids are discharged from the top of the splitter to a evaporation chamber, where the entrained water is separated or flashed off. The glycerine-water solution is then discharged (to evap oration chamber. The sweet water is concentrate to 30% glycerine concentration before pre-treatment section) from the bottom of an automatic interface controller to a settling tank. Full counter-current flow of oil and water produces a high degree of splitting without the need of a catalyst. However, a catalyst may be used to increase reaction rate further. Method Colgate-Emery Process GREEN CHEMISTRY AND SUSTAINABILITY Principle 3: The substances used and produced are non-toxic Principle 5: No harmful solvent and auxiliary are used Principle 7: The raw material is renewable source which come from plant Principle 10: The products are all bio-degradable. Catalyst No catalyst Conversion Process temperature 250-260 Â °C Process pressure 5MPa Composition of final product 90% Fatty acids 10% Glycerine Process time needed 2-3 hour at 250 Â °C and 5MPa Hazardous Reactant/By product or product Glycerine May cause eye and skin irritation. Ingestion of large amounts may cause gastrointestinal irritation Inhalation of a mist of this material may cause respiratory tract irritation May cause headache Energy consumption Energy Intensive Type of reaction Endothermic Raw material cost Safety factor High pressure process No harmful chemical is used Flexibility of operation Unreacted vegetable oil is recycled to prevent waste of raw material. Variability of feedstock such as: corn oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, etc Catalyst may be added to enhance the process Process Description The splitting tower is the most important part of this hydrolysis process. The Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBD PO) is preheated and feed into the column bottom by means of a sparge ring, around 1 m with a high-pressure pump. Water is introduced near the top at a ratio of 40-50% of the weight of the oil. The high splitting temperature (250-260 Â °C) ensures adequate dissolution of the water phase into the oil so that mechanical means for bringing the two phases into contact are not required. The oil rises through the hot glycerol-water collecting section at the bottom of the column and passes through the oil-water interface into the continuous phase, the oil layer in which hydrolysis takes place. Direct injection of high pressure steam at certain points quickly raises the temperature to 260 Â °C and enhances the splitting of oil. The continuous, countercurrent high pressure process splits fats in 98- 99% efficiency in only 2- 3 hours with little or no discoloration of the fatty acids and an efficient use of steam. The fatty acids are discharged from the top of the splitter to an evaporator, where the entrained water is separated or flashed off. The glycerine-water solution is then discharged from the bottom of an automatic interface controller to a settling tank. The vapour from evaporator is compressed, cooled and then collected at the feed water tank. After evaporator, the crude fatty acids are undergoing a series of distillation to separate different fatty acids according to their boiling point. Because of the inherent sensitivity of fatty acids toward heat, the distillation methods employed should be conducted at as low a temperature as practically and economically feasible while maintaining the shortest residence time of the fatty acid in the distillation unit. The separation sequence of fatty acids of palm oil is pre C-14, palmitic acid, mixture of oleic acid and linoleic acid, stearic acid and residue. The sweet water is let to settle down to separate into upper phase of unreacted fat and fatty acid and settle sweet water. It is settles for approximately 24 h at 80-90 Â °C and a pH of 4-5. Phosphoric acid is sometimes used to help break any emulsion, but this is not always required. The fats and fatty acids are decanted from the top of the sweet water and returned to the splitter feed for recycle. The settled sweet water is then sent to the evaporators for concentration. This alternative method requires two tanks, one for settling and one for collecting the sweet water. The tanks are alternated every 24 h to run continuously. The pre-treated sweet water will pass through 3 evaporators in series. This is accomplished by joining two or more evaporators in series using the heat from the live steam. The water vapour obtained from each evaporator is condensed to process water before being reused in the splitting column. Through these 3 evaporators in series, crude glycerine of about 88% can be obtained. The crude glycerine is then store in a tank. Reaction System Fat Splitting Column Refined Bleached Deodorised Palm Oil (RBD PO) is feed from the bottom of the column and the water is feed from the top of the column. The high temperature (250 Â °C) and high pressure (50MPa) enhance the solubility of water in oil phase where hydrolysis of oil occurs. The empty volume of the tower is used as the reaction compartment. The crude fat passes as a coherent phase from the bottom to the top through the tower, whereas the heavier splitting water travels downward as a dispersed phase through the mixture of fat and fatty acid. The mixture of fatty acid and entrained water is obtained at the top while the sweet water which contain 10 to 18% of glycerine. Approximately 2 hours of reaction time is needed to reach degrees of splitting up to 99%. Separation System Evaporator The fatty acids are discharged from the top of the splitting column to a evaporator, where the entrained water is separated or flashed off. The water content is removed to prevent oxidation and degradation fatty acids. The water vapour are then condensed and collected at the feed water tank. Distillation Column Due to the different carbon chain length and level of saturation of fatty acids, fatty acids can be separated according to their own boiling point. Due to the sensitivity of fatty acids toward heat, Distillation is carried out under high vacuum and lower temperatures and with the shortest residence time allowable. Typically, the distillation unit will work at a vacuum of 1.2kPa or less and temperature according to the feed composition and boiling point. After this series of distillation columns, 99% of palmitic acid, mixture of oleic acid and linoleic acid at 99% and 99 % stearic acid are achieved. The light cut or pre C14 fatty acids contain volatile impurities as well as odor and color bodies. The residue which consists of the higher boiling components, usually of lower quality can either be withdrawn separately or recycled directly for redistillation.

the threat of nuclear proliferation Essay -- essays research papers

One of the foremost growing concerns in the modern globalized world is the increasing rate of nuclear proliferation. Coupled with the burgeoning number of nuclear devices is the threat of a terrorist possibly obtaining a weapon of such magnitude. While one could argue that the rising number of states with nuclear capability is a disturbing prospect, particularly as many pursue such capabilities without the approval of the â€Å"traditional† nuclear powers, terrorists in possession of nuclear arms presents the most horrific outlook concerning nuclear proliferation. Terrorist groups, unlike states, are not organized governmental bodies, which complicates any means of formalized diplomacy or negotiation. Furthermore, unlike as compared to a state, one cannot formally declare war on a terrorist group, thus causing difficulties in regards to concerns of specific conflicts or targets. It is not as if one could penalize a terrorist group with economic sanctions or any other means st ates employ to deter threats from and intimidate one another. The globalized world has created a form of terrorism that knows no borders, and it would be very difficult to exert one’s will on a terrorist group, at least on a large scale. The coinciding fact that terrorists do not conduct warfare in the same manner as states do makes them increasingly unpredictable. A terrorist employment of a nuclear arm would not occur during an organized conflict; rather it would be used in a terrorist attack without warning. And due to the growing fervor of fundamental religious terrorism, there is a greater willingness among terrorists to sacrifice their own lives in pursuit of their goals. These combined elements create a frightening world in which today’s most astounding new threat possesses weapons of the most awesome power. The key to identifying the threat posed by a particular terrorist group is its basic tenets, and the level of violence thereof. â€Å"Groups that model themselves on an avenging angel or a vindictive god†¦are more likely to lash out than those whose core myth is the suffering Messiah,† (Stern, p.72). For example, the element that may be both the most prevalent and violent in the world today is fundamental Islamic extremism. With its emphasis on violent martyrdom and conquest on â€Å"infidels,† Islam is a religion based on values that are easily twisted to an extreme. Due to their religious ... ...ain such a weapon. Terrorists will not acquiesce to the terms concerning possession and production of nuclear weapons handed down by an international organization, regardless of its power. The best we can hope for is a level of regulation among the nuclear-capable states of the world that is strong enough to remove the possibility of any terrorist acquisition of nuclear materiel. The inherent lack of rationality in the mind of a terrorist is the quintessential factor behind the frightening prospect of nuclear proliferation among radicals, whether they are fundamental religious extremists, or political radicals. The globalized world of the 21st century has seen the threat of politically driven state ideology fade out and give way to the new threat of terrorist ideology. The dangers of such illogical principles are only compounded when on considers the nuclear element, and its significance in the hands of those who seek solely to harm others. The interconnectedness of the modern global community has compounded the threat of worldwide terrorism, and with greater nuclear proliferation, the potential for a devastating nuclear terrorist attack should shock and awe civilians everywhere.

History of nursing in nigeria and united states of america

According to Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria (2005) , the detailed history of a profession that combines scientific principle , technical skills and personal comparison can't be precisely relayed but records hold that nursing came to limelight in 1854 when the mother of professional nursing , Florence Nightingale started the battlefield with other 38 nurses and cared for the sick and injured men during the Crimean war in England.Here persistence dedicated services, day nd night , experiences paid off by making her famous and recognized as a lady with lamp. Her metric service resulted to the beginning of professional com/5-rights-of-nursing-delegation/">nursing. Though, nursing in the early days was primarily a family matter with mothers caring for their own families or neighbors assisting each other.In 1880, the status of nursing was greatly improved and many women including religious order were now involved in patients care. During the era, there are many school of nursing for trained nurse throughout Europe with the first school established in 1836 by arker Theorder Fliedner in his parisn in Kavesworth Germany through the influence of Florence Nightingale the Kareworth school. In 1882, came the first movement for the recognition and registration of nurse.International body were formed Emirgare Royal Births Nurses Council of nurses established in 1893 and international council of nurse was established with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland and branches all over the world. Also in 1926, the British college of nurses was founded. The first African American graduate nurse, Mary E. Mahoney, who promoted integration and etter working condition, for black patients and healthcare workers. Though nursing came to Nigerian through the British colonial master.They provided services and medical care for wounded soldiers at the forth with hospital later the first nursing home in Nigeria in Jericho, Ibadan by the government of the British colonial master Later on , missionaries and their wives came to supplement government effort by setting up mission homes, dispensaries etc and commence the training of nurses in Nigeria, though language barriers, there was no formal training but on the ob acquisitions skills and practical aspect are been rendered by nursing surgery The regional government in Nigeria began the training of nurses by setting individual regional standard in 1949, the school of nursing, Eleyele was established to facilitate the training of nurses, later in 1952 , the university college hospital Ibadan started the training of nurses in a higher standard. In 1949, the nursing council of Nigeria was established to complement the efforts to the various training bodies and creating standards for nurse. By 1965, department of nursing was established in the university of Ibadan to ommence a degree programme in Nigeria. Later on university of Ife in 1972 and university ot Nigeria Enugu also started degree in 1 , at present all t states in Nigeria has one or more school of nursing, midwifery and kind of post basic schools.More degree awarding institution has been granted the licencse to produce degree holder in nursing. Among them are Ahmadu Bello university, zairia. University of Calabar, Calabar, Ladoke Akintola University (LAUTECH) Ogbomoso. Also Private University, Babcok university, Disan Remo: Leadcity niversity, Madonna university among others started degree in nursing. Nurses, according to the ICN code of ethics as reviewed in 2005, have four fundamental responsibilities to promote health, to prevent illness, to restore health and to alleviate suffering. The need to nursing is universal inherent in nursing is respect for human rights, including cultural rights, the right to life and choice, to dignity and to be treated with respect.Nursing care is respectful and unrestricted by considerations of age, colour, creed, culture, disability or illness, gender, sexual rientation, nationality, polities, race or soc ial status. Nurses render health services to the individual, the family and the community and coordinate their services with those of related groups. Before 1981 , nursing was adjudged a vocation in Nigeria, but by virtue of the industrial arbitration panel (IAP ) award of 1981, nursing got the recognition of a full-fledge profession Arising from that pronouncement, the association has been working with the N ; MCN to take nursing to the highest pedestal of professionalism and one of the ways is through nursing education reforms.

Race For Nonviolent Drug Offenses Essay - 1110 Words

In 1619, the first enslaved person was brought to the colonies. A few years passed and in 1676, Bacon’s Rebellion occurred and racial identities were first introduced. Since that time there has been a social divide in North America and different parts of the world. In the beginning of the 1900s laws are put were put in place in the South and Midwest for drugs directed towards minorities. For the purposes of this essay I want to look at race when describing how race disproportionately plays in the legal system for nonviolent drug offenses. In America since 1970 since Nixon declared a war on drugs and the introduction of crack cocaine in the 80s America there has seen a rise of prison inmates. The majority of the inmates are minorities being charged with nonviolent drug offenses. As result, I would like to examine the annual rates of nonviolent drug convictions by race since 1980. In America we have been battling over issues about race for over 200 years. America has been battling with a â€Å"war on drugs† for more than 30 years. Race and drugs seem to play prominent roles in society and strike an interest of why. I recently was volunteering at a court office and noticed that the majority of the room were either Latino or African-American. Why was the court room racially disproportionate? Did that just mean more African-American and Latino people are more likely to be charged for non-violent drug offenses? I hear from classmates who are African-American or Latino more often thanShow MoreRelatedQuasi-Experimental Group Design To Compare Recidivism Rates Of Opioid Offenders?892 Words   |  4 PagesMethods Research Design The current study will utilize a quasi-experimental group design to compare recidivism rates of opioid offenders in drug courts compared to offenders on probation. 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MODERNIZATION AND DEPENDENCY THEORY Essay - 2404 Words

Modernization and Dependency Theory A clear and advanced look at the two theories leaves one with the assumption that they are related and therefore they can be discussed together. This is attributed to the fact that they both argue from the same point of development and that development of a nation can only be reached at by ensuring the acquisition of new techniques. In addition a country on its own cannot acquire the advanced techniques but through the interaction process with other countries. In terms of modernity, Anthony Giddens compares it to riding on a board a huge juggernaut (Potter 2002, p. 63). This brings with it consequences in the sense that those who resist the juggernaut are crushed. However, this maybe†¦show more content†¦Those eager to try out new methods of modernity should not assume the fact that it is always safe to try out new skills but should be prepared to accept the risks that come with it. It is all about trust, risk, opportunity and the dangers that accompany every sphere of modern life. We can only manage the stages of modernity but can never fully control them. Whenever we try to reduce the risks, new risks come up. An example is the daily studies that are undertaken on the ill health yet we still have high mortality rates being experienced in the world (Armstrong Zegher 2006, p. 17). Modernity can therefore be well understood from a view of several institutions. One of them is capitalism where there is commodity production that involves competitive productive markets, labour power and private ownership of property. Industrialism involves use of inanimate power sources and machinery to produce goods. This affects several sectors including transport, communication and everyday life. As a result there is creation of new employment and growth of several services. In surveillance, there is supervision of subject population where workers are monitored when undertaking their duties to ensure that there is a smooth flow of act ivities in the work place. Modernity does not necessarily involve the execution of positive skills but also negative them including the armament process. This is done to ensure thatShow MoreRelatedunethical advertising14492 Words   |  58 Pagescommercial media. For their part, advertisers naturally seek to reach audiences and the media, striving to deliver audiences to advertisers, must shape their content so to attract audiences of the size and demographic composition sought. This economic dependency of media and the power it confers upon advertisers carries with it serious responsibilities for both. ADVERTISING CODE OF ETHICS BASIC PRINCIPLES 1. All advertisements must comply with the laws of New Zealand. 2. No advertisement should impairRead MoreMonsanto: Better Living Through Genetic Engineering96204 Words   |  385 PagesSTUDIES A summary of the case analysis I N T R O D U C T I O N Preparing an effective case analysis: The full story Hearing with the aid of implanted technology: The case of Cochlearâ„ ¢ – an Australian C A S E O N E high-technology leader Delta Faucet: Global entrepreneurship in an emerging market C A S E T W O DaimlerChrysler: Corporate governance dynamics in a global company C A S E T H R E E Gunns and the greens: Governance issues in Tasmania C A S E F O U R Succeeding in the Sydney indie musicRead MoreProject Management15109 Words   |  61 Pagesactivities. Eg. IRDP Projects may stand-alone or be integrated a. Identification of the poor into a program, with several projects b. Knowing their choice contributing to one overall goal. c. Arranging bank assets A unique, one-time operational activity or d. Follow up / advisory activities effort e. Evaluation Requires the completion of a large number 2. Each activity is time found of interrelated activities 3. Each and every projec t should have a set of objectives to Established to achieve specific objectiveRead MoreMedicare Policy Analysis447966 Words   |  1792 PagesREFORMS TITLE II—PROTECTIONS AND STANDARDS FOR QUALIFIED HEALTH BENEFITS PLANS Subtitle A—General Standards Subtitle B—Standards Guaranteeing Access to Affordable Coverage Subtitle C—Standards Guaranteeing Access to Essential Benefits Subtitle D—Additional Consumer Protections Subtitle E—Governance Subtitle F—Relation to Other Requirements; Miscellaneous TITLE III—HEALTH INSURANCE EXCHANGE AND RELATED PROVISIONS Subtitle A—Health Insurance Exchange Subtitle B—Public Health Insurance Option

The World War II Germany - 1387 Words

World War II Germany Fonzo lives in Berlin, Germany with his brother Norbert and their best friend Hans. They did everything together, sports, school, and other activities. Fonzo and Hans are in the 12th grade and Norbert is in the 11th grade. One day they where just walking around together after school and saw a important looking car with a red and black Swastika on the sides with little flags on the front hood of the car also. They new that is was the The National Socialist German Workers Party or the (Nazi Party). They where good people just trying to get Germany out of debt and get them in a good economy. The man running for president was Adolf Hitler and he was a smart guy. All of his plans where going to help Germany with debt and†¦show more content†¦Later that year after Fonzo and Hans helping Hitler win his election and becoming president they now have to appoint a vice president which of course since its been 2 years Norbert has just graduated school and Fonzo and Hans tell Hitler that Norbert is very smart and would be a useful vice president. So Hitler agrees to appointing him to vice president and now they all are apart of the Nazi Party and the leaders of the Country. So they all are very important leaders of Germany at this point. Three years later March 12, 1933 the fist concentration camp opened. This was Hitlers doing Fonzo, Hans, and Norbert had nothing to do with it. They where very upset and they advised him to not get it but he insisted. They said it would be bad for him if he wants to become president but he said he had bigger plans then just being president and they didn’t really know what he meant. They where not sure about the path that Hitler was taking but they would give him some time. Maybe the power was just getting to his head and he would culm down and stop doing crazy things like that. About two weeks later March 23, 1933 Enabling Act gives Hitler dictation power. So that means that Norbert no longer has any pow er he’s just a powerless vice president. But Fonzo and Hans are still both Hitlers Advisors so they tell him to not make any more concentration camps. So he didn t make any

EU Law The Council of Ministers and the European Essay Example For Students

EU Law: The Council of Ministers and the European Essay Council are the mostpowerful of the main institutions. Discuss. The different functions and responsibilities of each of theinstitutions makes it is almost impossible to single out themost powerful. Power, meaning by definition authority andcontrol. The Commission the guardian of treaties, TheEuropean Parliament the voice of democracy, The Court ofJustice, in theory, the servant of community law, and TheCouncil the decision maker, all play a vital role in theperformance of the European Community . None of theinstitutions works in isolation, but combine together toachieve the aims and objectives of the Community. Their levelof power is determined not only by the role of the institutionsthemselves but also the decision making process. Therefore inorder to evaluate the levels of power it is necessary toexamine each of the five main institutions and then to brieflyestablish their capacities within each decision making process. Described as being a hydra-headed conglomerate of a dozen or morefunctional councils (Pinder p25), The Council Of Ministers comprises 40different councils of national civil servants. Backed by a governmentaldepartment, most ministers realise that they have a responsibility to tryto reach agreements that will be of some benefit to the Community as awhole, although the national governments are able to exert an influenceover Community legislation. A Committee of Permanent Representatives(COREPER) which is charged with the background work and The Council OfMinisters is in permanent session. The Council meets in Brussels andLuxembourg, however the presidency which is described as a countrysopportunity to show its commitment to Europe (Noel p24) rotates everysix months and during this time meetings are held in whichever countryholds presidency. Combining legislative, executive and diplomatic roles, itsfunction is fundamentally to examine Commission proposals, ensuring thatthere is a common understanding and then establish whether the proposal canbe accepted. It is The Council Of Ministers job to try to co-ordinate thepolicies of the Member States in areas where the Communitys method isstill co-operation and not integration, for example areas such asmacroeconomic policy and foreign policy. Despite being the main decisionmaking body it can only deal with proposals coming from the Commission, mayonly amend them by unanimity and has no power of legislation without theCommissions approval. Decisions are taken by the ministers and, once adecision is adopted, recommendations are usually put to the Member Statesalthough they do not carry legal force. However, the less importantdecisions may be adopted without debate, as long as the permanentrepresentatives and commission representatives are unanimous. Also assisted by COREPER and a General Secretariat and consistingof heads of state or government, the president of the EEC Commission,foreign affairs ministers and members of the Commission. The EuropeanCouncil is an extension of the Council Of Ministers to the levels of headsof government or state. Although there was no provision for a EuropeanCouncil in the Treaty Of Rome, it was agreed in 1974 to establish one, thefirst meeting being in Dublin, 1st March 1975. Since then it is the onlyinstitution to have gained full competence in the Single European Act,giving legal recognition to its existence. In 1986 it was also agreed in1986 to restrict meetings to twice a year (having previously been threetimes a year), with a view to limiting the intervention of The EuropeanCouncil in the general running of the Community. Linked with the growing authority of the heads of state orgovernment in most member states, the importance of the European Council issteadily increasing. Despite having no legislative powers the EuropeanCouncil is vital in resolving log-jams, pushing the Community forwards andit sets an agenda for Community objectives. The decisions made havesignificant implications on the Community and although the methods forlaying the guidelines lead to difficulties regarding the implementation,they are decidedly effective. To Kill A Mockingbird Essay SummaryTherefore other areas of legislation still require proposals to go throughThe Consultation Procedure. The Co-operation Procedure involves The Commission taking a view onThe European Parliaments opinion. After this The Council adopts a commonposition whereby every one agrees by qualified majority. It is then TheParliaments responsibility to either approve or take no action in whichcase The Council either adopts the act, rejects it by an absolute majority,although The Council may still adopt the proposal within three months, oramend by absolute majority. If this takes place, within one month TheCommission must review the parliaments amendments within one month andthen may revise them. Finally The Council is given the option of eitheradopting or amending Commission proposals, adopting the amendments that theCommission would not accept or fail to act. Under The Maastricht Treaty there exists The ConciliationProcedure, which although not in action yet would have a more extensiverange of areas to cover. Comparable to The Co-operation Procedure, exceptThe European Parliament has the option of approving, taking no action,proposing amendments or rejecting the proposal. In the event of a rejectionThe European Parliament is obliged to inform The Council of itsintentions. The Council then has three months to act on the amendments, inwhich time it may adopt all aims, adopt the amendments proposed by TheEuropean Parliament by unanimity or fail to act. This procedure gives TheEuropean Parliament a significant role if The Council fails to act. If newlegislation is not created within six weeks The Council readopts a commonposition. However, if it is rejected by absolute majority voting within TheEuropean Parliament the proposal lapses. By means of a process of elimination the most powerfulinstitutions may be narrowed down. The Court Of Justice despite having thefinal say, therefore having authority over all of the other institutionsdoes not enter the process of establishing policies, consequentlydemonstrating that its role is to survey the implementation and onlyintervene to ensure that the community law is observed. The EuropeanParliament has a consultative role and despite increasing importance, itsdecisions can be overruled too simply by The Council and The Commission. Both vital to the Community and both having considerable amounts of power. The competition is between The Council and The Commission. Despite TheCouncils power to make decisions, all proposals originate from TheCommission and may only be altered by unanimity, whereas The Commissioncreates proposals and ensures that they are implemented. In conclusion, an understanding that the institutions work inunison instead of isolation to gain full-effect is imperative. However, ifthe definition of power is taken to be control and authority, then it isneither The Council Of Ministers nor the European Council which is the mostpowerful of the five main institutions, but by having the monopoly of thepower to propose as well as to implement it is undoubtedly The Commission.